Polymorphisms of the pfmdr1 gene in field samples of Plasmodium falciparum and their association with therapeutic response to antimalarial drugs and severe malaria in Colombia
Keywords:
Plasmodium falciparum/drug effects, antimalarial/therapeutic use, malaria, chloroquine, amodiaquine, mefloquine
Abstract
Introduction. The pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum has been described as a gene conferring resistance to several antimalarial drugs. In particular, polymorphisms on specific codons have been associated with resistance and treatment failure with cloroquine, amodiaquine and mefloquine. However, the role of these polymorphisms in treatment response to antimalarials remains unexplored in Colombia. Furthermore, the relationship of these polymorphisms to severe malaria is unknown.Objective. This work studied the association of the Asn86Tyr and Asp1246Tyr pfmdr1 polymorphisms with response to cloroquine, amodiaquine and mefloquine treatment in three municipalities of Antioquia, and severe malaria cases from the municipality Tumaco.
Materials and methods.The polymorphisms were assessed by nucleic acid amplification followed by restriction length polymorphism analysis.
Results. The wild-type codon Asn86 was detected in 97% of the clinical samples from the treatment response study. No association was detected between this polymorphism and treatment failure to the three antimalarials administered. The 1246Tyr polymorphism was detected with a higher frequency in the samples from Antioquia 92% (130/141) than in those from Tumaco 22% (20/89). However, again, no association was found between the presence of a specific polymorphism and the presence of severe malaria in the municipality of Tumaco.
Conclusions. The 86Tyr and 1246Tyr polymorphisms of the pfmdr1 gene are not useful as predictors of treatment failure or severe malaria in the municipalities studied. In addition, we report for the first time, the presence of the mutant codon 86Tyr in field samples in South America.
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References
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2. Zambrano P. Informe final de malaria, semanas 1 a 52, Colombia, 2005. Inf Quinc Epidemiol Nac. 2006;11:49-64.
3. Basco LK, Tahar R, Ringwald P. Molecular basis of in vivo resistance to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in African adult patients infected with Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:1811-4.
4. Nzila AM, Mberu EK, Sulo J, Dayo H, Winstanley PA, Sibley CH, et al. Towards an understanding of the mechanism of pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum: genotyping of dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase of Kenyan parasites. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44:991-6.
5. Fidock DA, Nomura T, Talley AK, Cooper RA, Dzekunov SM, Ferdig MT, et al. Mutations in the Plasmodium falciparum digestive vacuole transmembrane protein PfCRT and evidence for their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol Cell. 2000;6:861-71.
6. Djimde A, Doumbo OK, Cortese JF, Kayentao K, Doumbo S, Diourte Y, et al. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:257-63.
7. Dorsey G, Kamya MR, Singh A, Rosenthal PJ. Polymorphisms in the Plasmodium falciparum pfcrt and pfmdr-1 genes and clinical response to chloroquine in Kampala, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:1417-20.
8. Peel SA. The ABC transporter genes of Plasmodium falciparum and drug resistance. Drug Resist Updat. 2001;4:66-74.
9. Reed MB, Saliba KJ, Caruana SR, Kirk K, Cowman AF. Pgh1 modulates sensitivity and resistance to multiple antimalarials in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature. 2000;403:906-9.
10. Basco LK, de Pecoulas PE, Le Bras J, Wilson CM. Plasmodium falciparum: molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Cambodian isolates. Exp Parasitol. 1996;82:97-103.
11. Basco LK, Ringwald P. Molecular epidemiology of malaria in Cameroon. X. Evaluation of PFMDR1 mutations as genetic markers for resistance to amino alcohols and artemisinin derivatives. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002;66:667-71.
12. Awad-el-Kariem FM, Miles MA, Warhurst DC. Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum isolates from the Sudan lack two mutations in the pfmdr1 gene thought to be associated with chloroquine resistance. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1992;86:587-9.
13. Bhattacharya PR, Biswas S, Kabilan L. Alleles of the Plasmodium falciparum Pfmdr1 gene appear not to be associated with chloroquine resistance in India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997;91:454-5.
14. Bhattacharya PR, Pillai CR. Strong association, but incomplete correlation, between chloroquine resistance and allelic variation in the pfmdr-1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum isolates from India. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1999;93:679-84.
15. Peel SA, Bright P, Yount B, Handy J, Baric RS. A strong association between mefloquine and halofantrine resistance and amplification, overexpression, and mutation in the P-glycoprotein gene homolog (pfmdr) of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994;51:648-58.
16. Pickard AL, Wongsrichanalai C, Purfield A, Kamwendo D, Emery K, Zalewski C et al. Resistance to antimalarials in Southeast Asia and genetic polymorphisms in pfmdr1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:2418-23.
17. Lopes D, Rungsihirunrat K, Nogueira F, Seugorn A, Gil JP, do Rosario VE et al. Molecular characterisation of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum from Thailand. Malar J. 2002;1:12.
18. Zalis MG, Pang L, Silveira MS, Milhous WK, Wirth DF. Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum isolated from the Amazon region of Brazil: evidence for quinine resistance. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;58:630-7.
19. Cox-Singh J, Singh B, Alias A, Abdullah MS. Assessment of the association between three pfmdr1 point mutations and chloroquine resistance in vitro of Malaysian Plasmodium falciparum isolates. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1995;89:436-7.
20. Blair S, Lacharme LL, Fonseca JC, Tobon A. Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to 3 antimalarials in Turbo (Antioquia, Colombia), 1998. Rev Panam Salud Pública. 2001;9:23-9.
21. Blair S, Lacharme LL, Carmona J, Tobon A. Resistencia de Plasmodium falciparum a los antimaláricos en Urabá y Bajo Cauca antioqueño. 1998. Revista Epidemiológica de Antioquia. 1999;24:207-15.
22. Blair S, López ML, Pineros JG, Álvarez T, Tobón A, Carmona J. Eficacia terapéutica de tres esquemas de tratamiento de malaria no complicada por Plasmodium falciparum, Antioquia, Colombia, 2002. Biomédica. 2003;23:318-27.
23. González IJ, Padilla JC, Giraldo LE, Saravia NG. Eficacia de amodiaquina y sulfadoxina/pirimetamina en el tratamiento de malaria no complicada por Plasmodium falciparum en Nariño, Colombia, 1999-2002. Biomédica. 2003;23:38-46.
24. Carmona-Fonseca J. La malaria en Colombia, Antioquia y las zonas de Urabá Bajo Cauca: panorama para interpretar la falla terapeútica antimalárica. Parte 1. Iatreia. 2003;16:299-318.
25. OMS/OPS. Evaluación de la eficacia terapéutica de los medicamentos para el tratamiento del paludismo por Plasmodium falciparum sin complicaciones en las Américas. Washington D.C.: OPS/HCP/HCT/113/98;1998.
26. Ministerio de Salud. Guía de atención de la malaria. En: Diario Oficial. 43956 ed. Bogotá: Ministerio de Salud; 2000.
27. Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu XP, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, do Rosario VE et al. High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 1993;61:315-20.
28. SPSS. Standard version 7.5. Chicago: SPSS for Windows; 1996.
29. CDC, WHO. Epiinfo 6.04. Geneve: WHO; 1996.
30. Basco LK, Ringwald P. Molecular epidemiology of malaria in Yaounde, Cameroon. III. Analysis of chloroquine resistance and point mutations in the multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1) gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;59:577-81.
31. Ochong EO, van den Broek IV, Keus K, Nzila A. Short report: association between chloroquine and amodiaquine resistance and allelic variation in the Plasmodium falciparum multiple drug resistance 1 gene and the chloroquine resistance transporter gene in isolates from the upper Nile in southern Sudan. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003;69:184-7.
32. Duraisingh MT, Drakeley CJ, Muller O, Bailey R, Snounou G, Targett GA, et al. Evidence for selection for the tyrosine-86 allele of the pfmdr 1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum by chloroquine and amodiaquine. Parasitology. 1997;114:205-11.
33. Povoa MM, Adagu IS, Oliveira SG, Machado RL, Miles MA, Warhurst DC. Pfmdr1 Asn1042Asp and Asp1246Tyr polymorphisms, thought to be associated with chloroquine resistance, are present in chloroquine resistant and -sensitive Brazilian field isolates of Plasmodium falciparum. Exp Parasitol. 1998;88:64-8.
34. Huaman MC, Roncal N, Nakazawa S, Long TT, Gerena L, Garcia C, et al. Polymorphism of the Plasmodium falciparum multidrug resistance and chloroquine resistance transporter genes and in vitro susceptibility to aminoquinolines in isolates from the Peruvian Amazon. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004;70:461-6.
35. Pillai DR, Hijar G, Montoya Y, Marouino W, Ruebush TK 2nd, Wongsrichanalai C, et al. Lack of prediction of mefloquine and mefloquine-artesunate treatment outcome by mutations in the Plasmodium falciparum multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1) gene for Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003;68:107-10.
36. Duraisingh MT, Jones P, Sambou I, von Seidlein L, Pinder M, Warhurst DC. The tyrosine-86 allele of the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum is associated with increased sensitivity to the anti-malarials mefloquine and artemisinin. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 2000;108:13-23.
37. Holmgren G, Gil JP, Ferreira PM, Veiga MI, Obonyo CO, Bjorkman A. Amodiaquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in vivo is associated with selection of pfcrt 76T and pfmdr1 86Y. Infect Genet Evol. 2006;6:309-14.
38. Happi CT, Gbotosho GO, Folarin OA, Bolaji OM, Sowunmi A, Kyle DE et al. Association between mutations in Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter and P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 genes and in vivo amodiaquine resistance in P. falciparum malaria-infected children in Nigeria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;75:155-61.
39. Duraisingh MT, Roper C, Walliker D, Warhurst DC. Increased sensitivity to the antimalarials mefloquine and artemisinin is conferred by mutations in the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol. 2000; 36:955-61.
40. Mawili-Mboumba DP, Kun JF, Lell B, Kremsner PG, Ntoumi F. Pfmdr1 alleles and response to ultralowdose mefloquine treatment in Gabonese patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46:166-70.
41. Winstanley PA, Ward SA, Snow RW. Clinical status and implications of antimalarial drug resistance. Microbes Infect. 2002;4:157-64.
42. Montoya L, Maestre A, Carmona J, Lopes D, Do Rosario V, Blair S. Plasmodium falciparum: diversity studies of isolates from two Colombian regions with different endemicity. Exp Parasitol. 2003;104:14-9.
43. Price RN, Uhlemann AC, Brockman A, McGready R, Ashley E, Phaipun L, et al. Mefloquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and increased pfmdr1 gene copy number. Lancet 2004;364:438-47.
44. Nelson AL, Purfield A, McDaniel P, Uthaimongkol N, Buathong N, Sriwichai S, et al. Pfmdr1 genotyping and in vivo mefloquine resistance on the Thai-Myanmar border. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;72:586-92.
45. Sidhu AB, Uhlemann AC, Valderramos SG, Valderramos JC, Krishna S, Fidock DA. Decreasing pfmdr1 copy number in Plasmodium falciparum malaria heightens susceptibility to mefloquine, lumefantrine, halofantrine, quinine, and artemisinin. J Infect Dis. 2006;194:528-35.
46. Anderson TJ, Nair S, Qin H, Singlam S, Brockman A, Paiphun L et al. Are transporter genes other than the chloroquine resistance locus (pfcrt) and multidrug resistance gene (pfmdr) associated with antimalarial drug resistance? Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49:2180-8.
47. Omar SA, Adagu IS, Gump DW, Ndaru NP, Warhurst DC. Plasmodium falciparum in Kenya: high prevalence of drug-resistance-associated polymorphisms in hospital admissions with severe malaria in an epidemic area. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2001;95:661-9.
2. Zambrano P. Informe final de malaria, semanas 1 a 52, Colombia, 2005. Inf Quinc Epidemiol Nac. 2006;11:49-64.
3. Basco LK, Tahar R, Ringwald P. Molecular basis of in vivo resistance to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in African adult patients infected with Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:1811-4.
4. Nzila AM, Mberu EK, Sulo J, Dayo H, Winstanley PA, Sibley CH, et al. Towards an understanding of the mechanism of pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum: genotyping of dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase of Kenyan parasites. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44:991-6.
5. Fidock DA, Nomura T, Talley AK, Cooper RA, Dzekunov SM, Ferdig MT, et al. Mutations in the Plasmodium falciparum digestive vacuole transmembrane protein PfCRT and evidence for their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol Cell. 2000;6:861-71.
6. Djimde A, Doumbo OK, Cortese JF, Kayentao K, Doumbo S, Diourte Y, et al. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:257-63.
7. Dorsey G, Kamya MR, Singh A, Rosenthal PJ. Polymorphisms in the Plasmodium falciparum pfcrt and pfmdr-1 genes and clinical response to chloroquine in Kampala, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:1417-20.
8. Peel SA. The ABC transporter genes of Plasmodium falciparum and drug resistance. Drug Resist Updat. 2001;4:66-74.
9. Reed MB, Saliba KJ, Caruana SR, Kirk K, Cowman AF. Pgh1 modulates sensitivity and resistance to multiple antimalarials in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature. 2000;403:906-9.
10. Basco LK, de Pecoulas PE, Le Bras J, Wilson CM. Plasmodium falciparum: molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Cambodian isolates. Exp Parasitol. 1996;82:97-103.
11. Basco LK, Ringwald P. Molecular epidemiology of malaria in Cameroon. X. Evaluation of PFMDR1 mutations as genetic markers for resistance to amino alcohols and artemisinin derivatives. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002;66:667-71.
12. Awad-el-Kariem FM, Miles MA, Warhurst DC. Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum isolates from the Sudan lack two mutations in the pfmdr1 gene thought to be associated with chloroquine resistance. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1992;86:587-9.
13. Bhattacharya PR, Biswas S, Kabilan L. Alleles of the Plasmodium falciparum Pfmdr1 gene appear not to be associated with chloroquine resistance in India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997;91:454-5.
14. Bhattacharya PR, Pillai CR. Strong association, but incomplete correlation, between chloroquine resistance and allelic variation in the pfmdr-1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum isolates from India. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1999;93:679-84.
15. Peel SA, Bright P, Yount B, Handy J, Baric RS. A strong association between mefloquine and halofantrine resistance and amplification, overexpression, and mutation in the P-glycoprotein gene homolog (pfmdr) of Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994;51:648-58.
16. Pickard AL, Wongsrichanalai C, Purfield A, Kamwendo D, Emery K, Zalewski C et al. Resistance to antimalarials in Southeast Asia and genetic polymorphisms in pfmdr1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:2418-23.
17. Lopes D, Rungsihirunrat K, Nogueira F, Seugorn A, Gil JP, do Rosario VE et al. Molecular characterisation of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum from Thailand. Malar J. 2002;1:12.
18. Zalis MG, Pang L, Silveira MS, Milhous WK, Wirth DF. Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum isolated from the Amazon region of Brazil: evidence for quinine resistance. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;58:630-7.
19. Cox-Singh J, Singh B, Alias A, Abdullah MS. Assessment of the association between three pfmdr1 point mutations and chloroquine resistance in vitro of Malaysian Plasmodium falciparum isolates. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1995;89:436-7.
20. Blair S, Lacharme LL, Fonseca JC, Tobon A. Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to 3 antimalarials in Turbo (Antioquia, Colombia), 1998. Rev Panam Salud Pública. 2001;9:23-9.
21. Blair S, Lacharme LL, Carmona J, Tobon A. Resistencia de Plasmodium falciparum a los antimaláricos en Urabá y Bajo Cauca antioqueño. 1998. Revista Epidemiológica de Antioquia. 1999;24:207-15.
22. Blair S, López ML, Pineros JG, Álvarez T, Tobón A, Carmona J. Eficacia terapéutica de tres esquemas de tratamiento de malaria no complicada por Plasmodium falciparum, Antioquia, Colombia, 2002. Biomédica. 2003;23:318-27.
23. González IJ, Padilla JC, Giraldo LE, Saravia NG. Eficacia de amodiaquina y sulfadoxina/pirimetamina en el tratamiento de malaria no complicada por Plasmodium falciparum en Nariño, Colombia, 1999-2002. Biomédica. 2003;23:38-46.
24. Carmona-Fonseca J. La malaria en Colombia, Antioquia y las zonas de Urabá Bajo Cauca: panorama para interpretar la falla terapeútica antimalárica. Parte 1. Iatreia. 2003;16:299-318.
25. OMS/OPS. Evaluación de la eficacia terapéutica de los medicamentos para el tratamiento del paludismo por Plasmodium falciparum sin complicaciones en las Américas. Washington D.C.: OPS/HCP/HCT/113/98;1998.
26. Ministerio de Salud. Guía de atención de la malaria. En: Diario Oficial. 43956 ed. Bogotá: Ministerio de Salud; 2000.
27. Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu XP, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, do Rosario VE et al. High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 1993;61:315-20.
28. SPSS. Standard version 7.5. Chicago: SPSS for Windows; 1996.
29. CDC, WHO. Epiinfo 6.04. Geneve: WHO; 1996.
30. Basco LK, Ringwald P. Molecular epidemiology of malaria in Yaounde, Cameroon. III. Analysis of chloroquine resistance and point mutations in the multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1) gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;59:577-81.
31. Ochong EO, van den Broek IV, Keus K, Nzila A. Short report: association between chloroquine and amodiaquine resistance and allelic variation in the Plasmodium falciparum multiple drug resistance 1 gene and the chloroquine resistance transporter gene in isolates from the upper Nile in southern Sudan. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003;69:184-7.
32. Duraisingh MT, Drakeley CJ, Muller O, Bailey R, Snounou G, Targett GA, et al. Evidence for selection for the tyrosine-86 allele of the pfmdr 1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum by chloroquine and amodiaquine. Parasitology. 1997;114:205-11.
33. Povoa MM, Adagu IS, Oliveira SG, Machado RL, Miles MA, Warhurst DC. Pfmdr1 Asn1042Asp and Asp1246Tyr polymorphisms, thought to be associated with chloroquine resistance, are present in chloroquine resistant and -sensitive Brazilian field isolates of Plasmodium falciparum. Exp Parasitol. 1998;88:64-8.
34. Huaman MC, Roncal N, Nakazawa S, Long TT, Gerena L, Garcia C, et al. Polymorphism of the Plasmodium falciparum multidrug resistance and chloroquine resistance transporter genes and in vitro susceptibility to aminoquinolines in isolates from the Peruvian Amazon. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004;70:461-6.
35. Pillai DR, Hijar G, Montoya Y, Marouino W, Ruebush TK 2nd, Wongsrichanalai C, et al. Lack of prediction of mefloquine and mefloquine-artesunate treatment outcome by mutations in the Plasmodium falciparum multidrug resistance 1 (pfmdr1) gene for Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003;68:107-10.
36. Duraisingh MT, Jones P, Sambou I, von Seidlein L, Pinder M, Warhurst DC. The tyrosine-86 allele of the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum is associated with increased sensitivity to the anti-malarials mefloquine and artemisinin. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 2000;108:13-23.
37. Holmgren G, Gil JP, Ferreira PM, Veiga MI, Obonyo CO, Bjorkman A. Amodiaquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in vivo is associated with selection of pfcrt 76T and pfmdr1 86Y. Infect Genet Evol. 2006;6:309-14.
38. Happi CT, Gbotosho GO, Folarin OA, Bolaji OM, Sowunmi A, Kyle DE et al. Association between mutations in Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter and P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 genes and in vivo amodiaquine resistance in P. falciparum malaria-infected children in Nigeria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;75:155-61.
39. Duraisingh MT, Roper C, Walliker D, Warhurst DC. Increased sensitivity to the antimalarials mefloquine and artemisinin is conferred by mutations in the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol. 2000; 36:955-61.
40. Mawili-Mboumba DP, Kun JF, Lell B, Kremsner PG, Ntoumi F. Pfmdr1 alleles and response to ultralowdose mefloquine treatment in Gabonese patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002;46:166-70.
41. Winstanley PA, Ward SA, Snow RW. Clinical status and implications of antimalarial drug resistance. Microbes Infect. 2002;4:157-64.
42. Montoya L, Maestre A, Carmona J, Lopes D, Do Rosario V, Blair S. Plasmodium falciparum: diversity studies of isolates from two Colombian regions with different endemicity. Exp Parasitol. 2003;104:14-9.
43. Price RN, Uhlemann AC, Brockman A, McGready R, Ashley E, Phaipun L, et al. Mefloquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and increased pfmdr1 gene copy number. Lancet 2004;364:438-47.
44. Nelson AL, Purfield A, McDaniel P, Uthaimongkol N, Buathong N, Sriwichai S, et al. Pfmdr1 genotyping and in vivo mefloquine resistance on the Thai-Myanmar border. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;72:586-92.
45. Sidhu AB, Uhlemann AC, Valderramos SG, Valderramos JC, Krishna S, Fidock DA. Decreasing pfmdr1 copy number in Plasmodium falciparum malaria heightens susceptibility to mefloquine, lumefantrine, halofantrine, quinine, and artemisinin. J Infect Dis. 2006;194:528-35.
46. Anderson TJ, Nair S, Qin H, Singlam S, Brockman A, Paiphun L et al. Are transporter genes other than the chloroquine resistance locus (pfcrt) and multidrug resistance gene (pfmdr) associated with antimalarial drug resistance? Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49:2180-8.
47. Omar SA, Adagu IS, Gump DW, Ndaru NP, Warhurst DC. Plasmodium falciparum in Kenya: high prevalence of drug-resistance-associated polymorphisms in hospital admissions with severe malaria in an epidemic area. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2001;95:661-9.
How to Cite
1.
Montoya P, Tobón A, Blair S, Carmona J, Maestre A. Polymorphisms of the pfmdr1 gene in field samples of Plasmodium falciparum and their association with therapeutic response to antimalarial drugs and severe malaria in Colombia. biomedica [Internet]. 2007 Jun. 1 [cited 2024 May 17];27(2):204-15. Available from: https://revistabiomedica.org/index.php/biomedica/article/view/216
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